Ethical Delivery of
Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Services:
Supported vs. Stand-Alone System Use
James P. Sampson, Jr.
In R. C. Reardon (chair), Ethical
Issues in Using Computers to Deliver Career Services:
Counseling Intervention, Equality of Access, and the Internet. Paper
presented at the
National Career Development Association Conference, Daytona Beach, FL, January,
9-11, 1997
Copyright 1997 by James P. Sampson, Jr.
All Rights Reserved
James P. Sampson, Jr. is
Professor and Co-Director of the Center for the Study of Technology in
Counseling and Career Development at Florida State University. Appreciation is expressed to Robert
Kolodinsky, Janet Lenz, Robert Reardon, Sandra Sampson, and Laurence Shatkin
for their comments on initial drafts of this paper. Correspondence should be addressed to James P. Sampson, Jr.,
University Center, Suite A4100, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida
32306-2490, (850) 644-2490 (voice) 644-3273 (FAX), jsampson@admin.fsu.edu
(e-mail), http://www.career.fsu.edu/techcenter
(web page)
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Over-
and under-serving clients results in potential ethical problems for staff. Because only a fixed amount of counselor
time is available, allocating this potentially valuable staff
resources to those
clients who are capable of benefiting from CACG system use with minimal
or no assistance (after screening), means that other clients are denied access
to the services they may need. At the
other extreme, the failure to allocate staff time to those
clients who need assistance to benefit from CACG system use, means that these
clients are also denied access to the services they may need. Access to information does not necessarily
equate to access to needed services.
Consider the following scenarios.
A student seeks help from a counseling
center to resolve her state of indecision regarding her choice of occupation
and field of study. The counseling
center brochure states that clients are served via one hour individual
appointments with center staff. She is
informed that staff are very busy and that no appointments are available for
six weeks. She is then told that she
would be welcome to browse through the career library in the counseling center
if she did not want to wait the six weeks for the next available
appointment. Frustrated, she
haphazardly glances over a large collection of books and information files,
fails to find relevant information, and concludes that the counselor probably
would not be helpful either and leaves the center.
A student seeks help from a career center
to resolve his state of indecision regarding his choice of occupation and field
of study. Given the general nature of
his request for assistance, hehis
is given an appointment by a staff member for a CACG system later in the
week. He is then provided with a
handout describing the CACG system. He
arrives for his appointment confused as to how the system relates to his
particular career problem. As he uses
the system he becomes overwhelmed with the available assessment, search, and
information features. He finds it
difficult to decide how to best use the system and has negative expectations
about his ability to “make the system work right,” which is a function of his
general indecisiveness. After an hour
of fruitless use of the system, he leaves, concluding that it was his fault
that he did not get the services that he needed. He reasons that staff would not have asked him to use a system
that was not “right” for him.
In both of these situations, staff did
not provide a level of support appropriate for the client. In the first scenario, a brief screening
interview could have determined that the client had a high degree of readiness
for CACG system use and needed only to view an orientation video, gain access
to the system, receive help (if needed) while she used the system, and know who
she could talk to if she experienced any problems or wanted to discuss other
issues after using all or part of the system.
In the second scenario, a brief screening interview could have
determined that the client was not ready for independent use of a CACG system
and that he needed more support before, during, and after system use in order
to solve his career problem. Because
staff time is allocated on the basis of need, many high readiness clients can
be served with minimal staff involvement, and the relatively few clients with
serious decision-making problems can receive the depth of assistance actually
required to meet their needs.
This
paper will explore the assumptions that influence the selection of supported or
stand-alone CACG use, the need for counselor intervention, counselor
intervention research, and CACG- related
ethical standards, as well as models, staff roles, options, and factors related
to intervention.
Assumptions
Influencing the Selection of a Supported or Stand-Alone Approach
The decision to use a CACG
system in either a supported or a stand-alone mode is strongly
influenced by staff assumptions about CACG and career guidance. The following two assumptions represent two
ends of a continuum on this issue.
1) The first assumption is that CACG is
essentially an electronic version of a book and like a book should be generally
available in library-like settings (or a computer network) without requiring
counselor intervention. While it may be
true that some individuals, because of their characteristics or needs, may not be
able to fully benefit from independent stand-alone use of CACG, the societal
need to provide individuals with maximum access to career guidance resources
outweighs the need to ensure effective use of CACG systems by individuals.
2) The second assumption is that CACG is
essentially an assessment resource linking individual characteristics with
occupational and educational opportunities for the purpose of encouraging
exploration while providing a portion of the information needed for decision
making. As a result, this type of
resource should be available only within the context of other career guidance
services. Individuals are perceived as
varying in terms of their needs, their capacity to understand assessment and
search methodologies, and their willingness to seek "magical" answers
from CACG and to accept computer-generated data as inherently valid. The current need to provide human
intervention to ensure effective use of CACG by individuals outweighs the
societal need to provide individuals with maximum access to career guidance
resources.
An optimal choice about using a
CACG system in a supported or stand-alone mode should balance the need to
provide individuals with reasonable access to effective
services that have a realistic chance of being effective with
the need to provide individuals with easy access to career services that
are an essential component of education and employment.
The Need for Counselor Intervention
A variety of factors contribute
to the need for supported client use of CACG systems via counselor
intervention. Potential factors
contributing to the need for intervention include client
readiness for CACG system use and problems with CACG system use.
Readiness for CACG System Use
Some clients appear to be more ready
to benefit from CACG system use more than
others. Factors
that affect readiness includeReadiness
can be conceptualized in terms of verbal ability, interests,
decision-making styles, knowledge, confidence, motivation, goals,
self-reliance, career thoughts, mental health, career choice barriers, and CACG
misconceptions.
Limited verbal ability. Haring-Hidore (1984) observed that the
reading and persistence requirements associated with CACG systems may make
system use particularly difficult for students with reading disabilities. Chapman and Katz (1982) found that the
capacity to use occupational information in career decision making was
positively correlated with verbal ability. Roselle and Hummel (1988) found that
clients with lower levels of intellectual development made less effective use
of a CACG system thanthat
did students with higher intellectual functioning. As a result, stand-alone CACG system use may be inappropriate for
individuals with limited verbal ability.
Supported use allows complex CACG concepts to be clarified for the user,
with follow-up of system use providing the opportunity to better ensure that
the user has understood and acted upon available information to make an
appropriate career choice.
Goal instability and
dependence. Clients with less
stable personal goals and who were less self-reliant
benefited less from using a CACG system than clients with stable goals who were
more self-reliant (Kivlighan, Johnston, Hogan, & Mauer, 1994). In comparison with stand-alone CACG use,
supported use provides an opportunity to explore personal and family issues
that contribute to having less stable goals and less self-reliance. Follow-up of CACG system use can then be used to help to ensure that goal
instability and dependence do not compromise the career decision making-process.
Social and enterprising
interests. Students with social and
enterprising interests evaluated a CACG system less positively than students
with other interest patterns (Lenz, Reardon, & Sampson, 1993). While stand-alone CACG use may be less appealing
to individuals with social and enterprising interests, CACG use within the
context of workshops, group counseling, and curricular interventions is more
likely to provide the social context that these individuals may need to process
information about themselves and their options.
Limited knowledge,
confidence, and motivation. Dungy
(1984) found that students with less self-knowledge, occupation knowledge,
confidence, willingness to assume responsibility, and willingness to use resources,
were correspondingly less successful in using a CACG system. Existing self and occupational knowledge
provide the foundation for CACG use, while confidence and the willingness to
engage in decision making provide evidence of the motivation necessary to fully
utilize the resources that a CACG system offers. Individuals with a limited knowledge foundation and poor
motivation are not likely to make effective use of a CACG system in a
stand-alone mode. Supported
interventions are more likely to provide the structure and encouragement
necessary for these individuals to risk assuming responsibility for decision
making and for following through with use of career guidance resources.
Negative career thinking. Thinking negatively about self, occupations,
and the decision making process makes it more difficult to solve career
problems. Individuals who have negative
career thoughts tend to be in a state of indecision,
as well as having less vocational identity, choice certainty, and knowledge
about occupations and training. Negative thoughts make it more difficult for an individuals
to think clearly about themselves, their options, and the process of decision
making (Sampson et al., 1996). Negative
thinking may make it difficult or impossible to effectively use the assessment,
search, information dissemination, and action planning functions of a CACG
system. For example, an individuals
may cognitively distort their perceptions of past and future experiences,
focusing on past failures and anticipating future problems. In terms of the self-rating of skills,
clients may give unrealistically low ratings of their skills thus influencing
the range of occupations identified for subsequent exploration. Clients may also give unrealistically low
self-ratings of their interests. Even
though they may have a specific interest, e.g. helping others, they anticipate
failure at this activity and give a low rating for this interest, again
influencing the range of occupations identified for subsequent
exploration. In terms of the use of
occupational information, clients may view a description of typical job tasks
of an occupation and imagine failing at those tasks and eliminate the
occupation from future consideration, when in fact they do have many of the
requisite skills to succeed in the occupation.
All three of the preceding examples involve an inappropriate limitation
of occupational exploration. In terms
of planning follow-through, some CACG systems involve users in creating an
action plan for implementing an occupational or educational choice. Clients who
think negatively may have difficulty in setting realistic goals and identifying
realistic steps necessary to achieve their goals. In comparison with
stand-alone CACG use, supported use provides an opportunity to help CACG system
users identify, challenge, and alter negative thoughts that limit career
decision-making effectiveness.
Anxiety and depression.
Anxiety and depression can limit the problem-solving capabilities of an
individual using a CACG system. Herr
(1989) noted that mental health consequences existed for job loss and
dissatisfaction. Some clients seeking
career services have significant mental health as well as career needs. Anxious or depressed individuals may have
difficulty concentrating while using a CACG system. They may also have difficulty in deciding on a sequence for best
using the components of a CACG system to meet their needs. Supported CACG system use provides an
opportunity to monitor the extent to which anxiety and depression are compromising
CACG system use and to provide the structure and support the user may need, all
of which would be unavailable if the system were used on a stand-alone basis.
Barriers to career choice. A variety of individual characteristics can
hinder the career decision-making process.
Brown and Brooks (1991) noted that some clients have too few interests,
have unrealistic or self-limiting aspirations, or are resistant to career
counseling. Fredrickson (1982) and
Brown and Brooks (1991) noted that multipotential persons typically have more
difficulty with career choice. Other
barriers, such as conflict among life roles, conflict with parents or spouse, a
lack of financial resources, prejudice, and stereotyping makes career decision making more
difficult. Stand-alone, unsupported
access to a CACG system may provide assessment and information resources
relevant to the above barriers.
However, stand-alone system use does not provide a supportive context
for identifying and resolving personal and family issues influencing career
choice. Supportive interventions may be
necessary to effectively deal with these barriers to career choice. Counselor intervention with CACG is particularly
important for adults given the constraints and multiple roles that often exist
(Closs & Miller, 1989).
Intuitive decision-making
styles. Spokane (1991) noted that
problems can occur in attempting to teach rational decision-making strategies
to intuitive persons. CACG systems are
inherently rational in nature.
Counselor intervention can assist more intuitive clients to use CACG
systems in a sequence and manner that is congruent with their decision-making
style. Individuals with an intuitive decision-making style who gain unsupported
access to a CACG system may not have the opportunity of learning how to use the
system in a manner congruent with their decision-makinglearning style.
Misconceptions about CACG. Inappropriate expectations about using a
computer-assisted career guidance system may limit critical thinking and exploratory
behaviors necessary for effective career decision making. Spokane (1991) noted that clients value
tests and CACG more than other career interventions. Some clients view computers as providing magical answers to their
decision-making problems (Goodyear & Sinnett, 1984; Spokane, 1991). Rayman (1989) stated that, “Users frequently
expect that the system will solve all of their problems or provide them with a
detailed directive of how to choose their major, implement their career, and
live their life” (p. 6). As a result,
clients may be less likely to assume responsibility for their own decision
making. Some clients also perceived
that computer-disseminated information was inherently valid (Bleuer & Walz,
1983; Engels, Caulum, & Sampson, D., 1984; Lister, 1970; Thiers,
1988). This misconception may limit
critical thinking and the motivation to seek corroborating or disconfirming
information from other sources.
Supportive use allows the opportunity to introduce a CACG system in a
manner to reduce misconceptions about the system. Follow-up of system use may help to further ensure that
misconceptions have not compromised career decision making.
Readiness for supportive vs.
stand-alone system use. One might
erroneously conclude that CACG systems are only appropriate for relatively high
functioning individuals. It is likely
that this conclusion is valid for stand-alone CACG use. With appropriate counseling intervention, clients functioning at a
variety of levels can receive the support necessary to process and apply the
information they receive from a CACG system to their career decisions. Clients with severe cognitive and/or
emotional impairments would likely be inappropriate system users irrespective
of the level of support available.
Problems with CACG System Use
The search process used to
identify occupations that are congruent with self-assessment and measured
assessment variables is typically the most cognitively complex aspect of a CACG
system. Several problems may result if an individuals
fails to understand how occupational
options relate to their values, interests, skills, and preferences for various
labor market variables (e.g., employment outlook, education required, physical
demands). First, the capacity of the
system to promote learning about career decision making is limited, and as a
result the individuals
misses anand opportunity to improve their
skills for making future decisions.
Second, for individuals who view the system as providing “magical” answers,
they may uncritically pursue occupations and education based on inappropriate
assessment data. Third, individuals may
be less likely to vary their self-assessment data to learn how changes in their
values, interests, and skills impact occupational opportunities. Effective counselor intervention can ensure
that the clients
areis ready for, and havehas a realistic understanding of, CACG
assessment and search functions. Drier
(1989, p. 17-18) observed that counselors need to provide orientations to CACG
system use that include “cautions, purposes, goal expectations, rules,
procedures, and limitations of any system in use.” Professional support reduces the risk that an individual will
misinterpret assessment results (Harris-Bowlsbey, 1985c). Watts, Kidd, and& Knasel (1991) noted that some
individuals who use CACG systems in stand-alone settings will need guidance
support to minimize problems associated with drawing inappropriate conclusions
from system use. In an evaluation of
CACG system use, Flynn (1990) found that students routinely skipped the on-line
instructions on system operation.
Introductory instructions are often critical in understanding CACG
assessment and search processes.
Individuals may become
overwhelmed with the large amounts of information contained in many CACG
systems. Counselors have an important role in helping clients determine which
information is relevant to their concerns (Gelatt, 1984). As the amount of information available continues
to increase, this role for the counselor becomes increasingly important. After obtaining information, counseling
intervention can assist the client in analyzing the risks and desirability
associated with occupational alternatives (Maze & Perlmutter, 1983).
Counseling can help clients deal with emotional reactions to information as
well as help clients “think through the implications of information for
attitudes and for action” (Super, 1970, p. 107). Illovsky (1991) noted that
computer users may be unaware of additional services and materials when
counselor intervention is lacking.
“Considering the number of questions our staff answers from students
interacting with a computer, it is questionable that any existing system is
truly a stand-alone program” (Johnston, Buescher, & Heppner, 1988, p. 41). Ball (1990) noted that use of CACG is more
effective when: 1) recommendations are made about system features that meet
specific needs; 2) system progress is monitored; 3) feedback is provided on
system use; and 4) the results of system use are discussed. Some institutions have made
policy decisions requiring counselor intervention before and after CACG system
use (Bryson-Israel & Schweriner, 1989; Salters & Hix, 1989).
Research Rrelated to Counselor Intervention
Counselor intervention research
has included general studies of CACG system use that have incorporated the
topic of counselor intervention and studies that have compared the
effectiveness of supported and stand-alone CACG system use.
The Nature and Availability of CACG Counselor
Intervention
In a study of CACG system use,
Sampson, Shahnasarian, and Reardon (1987) found that counseling interventions
were provided before system use (88%), between system use appointments (61%),
and after system use (88%). Twelve
percent of institutions responding indicated the use of a stand-alone
approach. Paraprofessionals provided
counselor intervention in 37% of the institutions. In a subsequent study of CACG system use, Howland and& Palmer,
(1992) found that 81% of CACG systems operate with a counselor available during
on-line use and/or follow-up is required.
Small institutions were more likely to provide counselor intervention
than large institutions (88% to 66%).
Helwig and Snodgress (1990) found institutional size and public vs.
private status to have no impact on whether or not staff assistance was
available for students using a CACG system.
Telephone interview data from the Howland and Palmer (1992) study showed
that few institutions offered CACG systems on a true stand-alone basis. Even when a minimal intervention was
offered, some attention to career development issues or technical operation of
the system was provided.
Paraprofessionals in the roles of peer counselors or graduate assistants
were often used to deliver interventions (43% to 38%). Follow-up telephone interviews of survey
respondents indicated some ethical concerns about the use of CACG systems. “When asked what, if anything, they would
change about the way how they operate with CACGS, the majority of those called
said they would like to have more staff time for better quality service”
(Howland & Palmer, 1992, p. 40).
The follow-up interviews clearly identified a tension between the appeal
of serving numerous students by making a CACG system easily accessible on the
campus computer mainframe vs. concerns about follow-up opportunities and the
quality of services provided in a stand-alone mode.
Effectiveness of Supported vs.
Stand-alone CACG System Use
A number of studies have
compared the effectiveness of CACG system use with counselor intervention vs.
stand-alone CACG system use. Kapes,
Borman, and Frazier (1989), Marin and Splete (1991), Niles and Garis (1990),
and Savickas (1990) found counselor intervention to be more effective than
stand-alone CACG system use. While
students who received a structured counseling intervention and students in a
stand-alone group perceived a CACG system to be equally effective, students
receiving counseling spent more time using the system than students in the
stand-alone group (Sampson & Stripling, 1979). Campbell (1983) and Garis and Harris-Bowlsbey (1984) found no
statistically significant difference between counselor intervention and
stand-alone CACG system use.
Shahnasarian and Peterson (1988)
found stand-alone CACG use to be an effective intervention. Watts, Kidd, and Knasel (1991) found that
one CACG system was more extensively used in a stand-alone mode in a university
library than in a university career service. The library setting also appeared to attract
a wider range of users than did the career service setting. However, stand-alone use also resulted in
shorter use times, fewer second or subsequent sessions, and less positive
evaluations from individuals in comparison with supported use in a career service. “Overall, the current evidence suggests that
placing PROSPECT in places like university libraries is likely to produce a
substantial increase in quantity of usage, but may make it more
difficult to encourage quality of usage” (Watts, Kidd, & Knasel, 1991,
p. 76). Easier and/or anonymous access
to career services might improve utilization for some individuals who are
unwilling to use existing services.
Hunt (1993) also noted that self-help software may help integrate formal
guidance with informal guidance in the community and the home. Although research results are mixed,
supported CACG use often appears to be more effective than stand-alone system
use. One of the reasons for these mixed
results may well have to do with the nature of clients using the systems in
these studies.
High readiness clients are
likely more capable of benefiting from stand-alone CACG system use, while low
readiness clients are likely less able to benefit from stand-alone use. It is likely that some individuals realize
their need for help in using a system and actively seek assistance. It is also likely that some other
individuals are unaware that they need assistance, and as a result, do
not seek the help that they need. Furthermore,
otherSome individuals may be aware that
they need help, but not be able to ask for assistance. Hawthorn (1993, p. 50) observed that “All
clients, and particularly adults, are good at pretending to know what they want
in order to save face (or protect the feelings of their helper), and it takes a
skilled practitioner to know when they need help and when they do not.” Such individuals are likely to be poorly
served when CACG systems are provided in a stand-alone mode via computer
networks or public access locations. At
a minimum, some type of screening intervention is needed to identify which
individuals are likely to need staff intervention to benefit from system
use. While some CACG systems include
features designed to help the user identify their needs, no current system is
sophisticated enough to effectively screen users in terms of the need for staff
intervention.
The need for counselor
intervention is ultimately a function of two factors, the characteristics of
the CACG system and the characteristics of the user. In the past, aspects of some CACG systems were complex or
confusing, thus requiring more staff intervention to ensure effective client
use of the system. As CACG systems
improve, less counselor intervention will be needed (Sampson, Peterson, &
Reardon, 1989). For example, improvements
in the capacity of CACG systems to monitor the user’s dialog during system use
and provide appropriate feedback (Gati, 1994; 1996) may lead to a reduced need
for counselor intervention. Ballantine
(1986) concluded that stand-alone CACG systems become feasible to the extent
that “(1) It is clear to the client that the system is a ‘decision-support’
i.e., that it is supporting the user’s decision making and not replacing
it. (2) The client is capable of understanding
the theoretical model which is embedded in the system. (3) The system is capable of explaining the
basis on which it has reasoned to arrive at its outcome. (4) The embedded model is adequate in ways
which transcend a narrowly cognitive approach” (p. 7). However, even with substantial improvements
in the design of CACG systems, counselor intervention will still be needed
because some individuals have characteristics that require assistance if their
needs are to be met.
Ethical Standards Related
to Counselor Intervention
Ethical standards in counseling
have supported counselor intervention as a necessary element of client use of
computer software. The ethical
standards of the American Counseling Association (ACA; 1995), the National
Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC; 1989), and the National Career
Development Association (NCDA; 1991), all identify the need to ensure that: (a)
clients are ready for system use, (b) the system is appropriate for client
needs, (c) clients understand the purpose, operation, and limitations of the software,
and (d) follow-up is provided to identify potential problems and assess
subsequent client needs. ACSCI
standards state that “Any student or client should be oriented to the system
prior to usage and should be given follow-up assistance after use” (Caulum
& Lambert, 1985, p. 7). NCDA
and NBCC ethical standards specifically mention the use of stand-alone
software. Stand-alone software must be designed and validated for such use, as
opposed to modifying software originally intended to be use in a supported
mode. The software must also include
information about the nature of successful use and circumstances where
counseling would be appropriate.
Howland and Palmer (1995) reported that 34% of respondents surveyed
perceived that they were in compliance with the ACA, NBCC, and NCDA ethical
standards described above. There
appears to be a discrepancy between the standard of quality expected in these
ethical codes and the reality of staff perceptions of actual practice. Additional research is needed to identify
staff performance in relation to specific standards and to identify the forces
that influence compliance with standards.
Research is also needed to ensure that the content coverage of the
standards are adequate, e.g., coverage of problems that are likely to
contribute to client welfare, while avoiding being unnecessarily
restrictive. Watts (1996) has noted
that attempts to be overly restrictive in limiting access to CACG systems are
likely to fail. (See Sampson, 1996 for
a bibliography of ethical standards and issues associated with the design and
use of computer-assisted career guidance systems.)
Models for Counselor
Intervention
A variety of models have been
proposed for integrating counseling and CACG system use into guidance
services. This section begins with a
description of general models of integration, followed by a proposed model of
counseling intervention and a discussion of staff roles in intervention.
General Models of CACG Integration
Watts (1996) identifies the
following four models for integrating CACG systems into guidance services:
·
The stand-alone
model, in which the computer system is used in isolation from other guidance
interventions.
·
The supported
model, in which the user is seen - usually for a brief period - immediately before
and/or after using the system.
·
The incorporated
model, in which the computer system is used within another guidance
intervention.
·
The progressive
model, in which the use of the computer system is proceeded and/or followed by other
guidance interventions in a developmental sequence (p. 276).
The stand-alone
model provides access to information at the lowest possible cost. The supported, incorporated,
and progressive models all provide user support to maximize the
likelihood that career decision-making needs will be meet. The incorporated and progressive
models have the further advantages of maximizing cost-effectiveness through the
use of group interventions, and maximizing opportunities for synergy among
resources and services via the systematic integration of a CACG system into a
guidance program. Selecting one or more
of these models is a reflection of the career guidance policy of the
organization offering services. (See Watts, 1994 for a discussion of the varied
policy issues influencing the design of career guidance services.)
A Proposed Model of Counseling
Intervention
The following counseling
intervention model is designed to provide structure for the supported, incorporated,
and progressive CACG integration models described above. This model is an extension of previous CACG
intervention strategies (Sampson, 1983; Sampson & Johnson, 1993; Sampson,
Peterson, & Reardon, 1989). In brief,
the model is designed to help ensure that: (a) CACG system use is appropriate
for the client (screening); (b) clients have a realistic understanding
of benefits, limitations, and functioning of the system in relation to their
needs (orientation); and (c) clients have appropriately used CACG
features to meet their previously identified needs and they have a plan for
future action (follow-up).
Wherever appropriate, group-based interventions (e.g., group counseling,
workshops, and curricular interventions) should be used to maximize the
cost-effectiveness of staff interventions (McCormac, 1988; Peterson et al.,
1991; 1996). Self-directed career
decision making[1] can also be
used to cost-effectively deliver career guidance interventions (Reardon, 1996),
including CACG support.
Screening. The purpose of the screening (or
initial interview) is to ensure that the needs of the client are congruent with
the capabilities of the CACG system. After completing the screening
process, the client should have established a relationship with the counselor
that is appropriate for the service delivery setting, clarified his
or hertheir career decision-making needs,
understand how their needs can be potentially met, and have an initial plan for
using the CACG system and other resources and services. During screening, counselors obtain information
from the client, formulate hypotheses about client needs, make recommendations
about the use of service delivery options and information resources (including
the CACG system) that are likely to assist the client in meeting his or her
needs, as well as answer client questions.
While a screening interview may be brief for most individuals,
longer interviews may be required for individuals with serious career problems.
A variety of brief
hand-scorable screening instruments are available to facilitate
the screening process (Sampson & Reardon, 1997). [mention the use of screening instruments?] The need to determine client
readiness for CACG services has been a consistent theme in the literature
(Alston & Burkhead, 1989; Dungy, 1984; Harris-Bowlsbey, 1985b; Peterson, et
al., 1991; Sampson & Pyle, 1983; Walz & Benjamin, 1984). Spokane (1991) emphasized the importance of
client needs assessment prior to delivering any career intervention.
There
are circumstances where very little screening effort
is required. For example, assume
an individual’s presenting statement was, “I
would like to find information comparing the
starting salaries of accountants and auditors.” A
staff member might conclude that this request was concrete and did not reflect any
problems with decision making. The
staff member could then recommend the
career information component of a CACG system and
not engage in any further screening. If, however, the individual’s
presenting statement was, “I have changed programs of study several times and I
am uncertain
about the future,” then the staff member would conclude that a more
careful screening intervention was needed prior to
the use of assessment and information resources. The
key criterion for determining if a screening intervention is needed is initial
staff judgment of an individual’s
readiness for career decision
making. Failure
to appropriately
identify an individual with substantial needs can be corrected if
staff in the career library occasionally interact
with individuals to inquire if the individual’s needs are being met. If it appears to a staff member that an
individual is not making effective use of a CACG system, then a careful
screening can be conducted to more accurately assess individual needs. Briefly checking with individuals to inquire if
their needs are being met provides a “safety net”
to ensure effective service delivery.
Orientation. The purpose of orientation is to
enable clients to make full use of the capabilities of the CACG system, by
helping them understand the benefits, limitations, and functioning of the
system in relation to their needs.
After completing the orientation process, the client should be
better prepared conceptually to use the CACG system and more confident that he
or she is capable of successful system use.
During orientation, counselors disseminate information about the
CACG system, relate the functioning of the system to specific client needs, as
well as answer client questions.
Individuals with a high degree of readiness can view an orientation
video, reserving staff time for answering specific questions. Individuals
identified with serious career problems are likely to need professional
assistance in an individual or group format.
Flynn (1990) found orientation to be important factor in CACG user
satisfaction.
Follow-up. The purpose of follow-up is to ensure
that the client's use of the CACG system methas the potential to meet the client's
needs that were identified during screening. After completing the follow-up process, the client should
have fully used the features of the CACG system to meet his
or hertheir career decision-making
needs. During follow-up,
counselors continue the relationship development process as appropriate,
monitor client use of the CACG system (paying particular attention to potential
inappropriate use of the system and potential dysfunctional thinking about
career choice by clients identified with serious career problems), reexamine
client needs and make appropriate recommendations for further use of the
system, as well as answer client questions.
If possible, a final follow-up
interview is conducted to enhance the client's capability to effectively follow
through on decision-making tasks. After
completing the final follow-up interview, the client should have an
understanding of the amount of progress that has been attained in meeting his
or her needs, an understanding of the additional resources and services that
can be used to complete the career decision-making process, and a general
understanding of the career decision-making process that can be used for
subsequent career decisions. During the
final follow-up interview, counselors assist clients in evaluating their
progress toward meeting their needs, recommend additional resources and
services as needed, discuss how their current decision-making process can be
generalized to future career decisions, as well as answer client questions.
Staff
Roles for Counselor Intervention
The question arises, Who should provide
counselor intervention for CACG systems?
Professionals, [2] paraprofessionals, [3] and clerical support staff may all
provide elements of a CACG counseling intervention, depending on their training
and experience. Ethical codes in the
helping professions generally contain a standard to the effect that helpers are
not to provide services beyond their training and experience. For example, a counseling professional may
screen individuals for system use and provide counseling for clients with
serious decision-making problems. A
paraprofessional may conduct group orientations to the system and help clients
use supplemental information resources.
A clerical support staff member may respond to questions about how to
make the system perform a specific function.
Such differential staffing is more likely to allocate expertise in a
more cost-effective manner. Good staff
training and supervision are key elements in meeting the ethical requirements
of keeping interventions within the boundaries of staff competence.
Potential
Options for Intervention
A range of options exist for
balancing the quantity of access with the quality of access to
CACG systems. This section begins with
an exploration of the range of option available for full CACG system use,
followed by a discussion of partial CACG system use in a stand-alone mode and
an exploration of future opportunities for supported CACG system use.
1) Limit CACG system access to settings
where appropriately trained staff (e.g., counselors, teachers, librarians,
and/or paraprofessionals) are available to provide required screening, required introduction
to system use, and required follow-up
to system use. This option provides the
highest degree of potential protection for low readiness individuals and
potential improved system use for all individuals. However, this option also limits, while substantially limiting the
number of individuals served or substantially increasesing the cost of service delivery. The use of more cost-effective group
interventions can reduce these limitations.
2) Limit CACG system access to settings
where appropriately trained staff are available to provide required
screening, optional system orientation via videotape, and optional
follow-up to system use by trained staff.
This option provides a moderate degree of potential protection for low
readiness individuals and a moderate degree of potentially improved system use
for all individuals. However,
this option also limits,
while moderately limiting the number of individuals potentially
served.
3) Open CACG system access via a computer
network and/or stand-alone computers in public access locations (such as a
library), in addition to offering a system in a career service
delivery organization. In this
option, access is moderated via a where
required screening is delivered
by trained staff. Appropriate
users could then be provided withwho
provide a personal access code for subsequent system use by appropriate individuals, with optional
system introduction and follow-up provided via videotape and staff intervention
respectively. This option provides a
moderate degree of potential protection for low readiness individuals and
potentially minimally improved system use for all individuals. However, this
option also limitswhile
minimally limiting the number of individuals potentially
served.
4) Open CACG system access via a computer
network and/or stand-alone computers in public access locations (such as a
library), with required telephone screening to determine how much
support an individual is likely to require, after which a plan is agreed upon
for system use that may or may not include additional phone contact. Appropriate users could then be
provided with a , and
then the user is
given a personal access code for
subsequent system use, with optional telephone support provided
at the request of the userto
use the CACG system over the network. This option provides a moderate degree of potential protection for
low readiness individuals and potentially minimally improved system use for all
individuals. This
option only minimally limits,
while minimally limiting the number of individuals potentially
served.
5) Open CACG system access via a computer
network and/or stand-alone computers in public access locations (such as a
library), in addition to a career service delivery organization, with optional
screening, system introduction, and follow-up provided by trained career
service staff. The
availability of counseling support could be as
advertised on a an introductory screen of
the CACG system. This option
provides little, if any, protection for low readiness individuals and minimally
improved system use for all individuals. This option places,
while placing no potential limits on the number of individuals
served.
6) Open CACG system access via a computer
network and/or stand-alone computers in public access locations (such as a
library), using optional telephone
counseling to deliver brief screening, orientation, and follow-up on an as
needed basis at the initiation of the user.
The availability of telephone-based counseling
support could be advertised on an introductory screen on the CACG system. This option provides little, if any,
protection for low readiness individuals and minimally improved system use for
all individuals. This
option places,
while placing no limits on the number of individuals potentially
served.
7) Open CACG system access via a computer
network and/or stand-alone computers in public access locations (such as a
library), in addition to a career service delivery organization. This option provides little, if any,
protection for low readiness individuals. This option places
while placing no limits on the number of individuals potentially
served.
Partial Use of CACG System Components in
a Stand-Alone Mode
The above options assume that a
complete CACG system is offered to individuals. Another alternative is to match intervention modes to specific
portions of the system being offered.
Some systems have the feature of allowing staff to select components
that are offered to users. For example,
a user at a counseling center may have all system components available with
counseling intervention appropriate for his or her needs, while a user
accessing software over a computer network at a public library or at home may
use a limited set of system components without counselor intervention. As stated previously, the search process
used to identify occupations that are congruent with self-assessment and
measured assessment variables is typically the most cognitively complex aspect
of a CACG system. The assessment and
search portions of the software can be made unavailable in some CACG systems,
leaving all of the CACG information files open to unrestricted access. These occupational, educational, and
employment information files are in fact very similar to the information
contained in books and CD-ROMs that are already available without access
restrictions in libraries.
Future Opportunities for Supported CACG
System Use
The evolution of the Internet
into the information highway will allow potential opportunities for counselor
intervention as follows:
Counselors
can use client completion of learning resources on computers with information
highway access as an opportunity to effectively intervene during the learning
event. Counselor intervention “in the
moment” provides access to a client’s perceptions and behavior as they occur,
as opposed to subsequently discussing a client’s reconstruction of a leaning
event that may have occurred days or weeks earlier. For example, if a client
becomes confused about the search process used to identify potentially
appropriate occupations while using a computer-assisted career guidance system,
one help option within the system could involve a brief two-way videoconference
with a remotely-located counselor. The
counselor could answer the client’s question or, with permission, access the
client’s computer to determine which search variables were being used by the
client and then use this data to explain the logic behind the search
process. If during the discussion the
counselor judged that the client was experiencing substantial difficulty,
several levels of help would be possible.
The counselor could simply observe and comment on the client’s use of
the system while reinforcing exploratory and problem-solving behavior. If the client were particularly confused,
the counselor could access the client’s computer (with permission) to
demonstrate how to complete a specific task and then briefly observe and
reinforce the client’s subsequent use of the system. In some cases, the counselor may judge that the client’s level of
distress merits a referral to a local counselor. In extreme cases, the counselor may judge that a situation exists
requiring immediate crisis intervention in addition to a local counselor
referral. Appropriate Intervention during the use of self-help
learning resources may encourage an individual to seek needed counseling
services that the individual was previously unaware of or may have been
avoiding (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, in press, p. 12).
Factors Influencing the Selection of a Supported or
Stand-Alone Approach
The following factors are also
likely to influence decisions about the need for CACG counselor intervention:
1) The impact of typical staff workload
on the time available for screening, orientation, and follow-up activities.
2) Staff judgments about the typical readiness
of individuals for effective career choice, informed by any available client
data.
3) Staff experience using varying types
of supportive interventions with CACG system use, informed by any available
evaluation data.
4) The design of the CACG system with
respect to the amount of support required.
5) The clarity and consistency of the
CACG system design, with less clear and consistent systems needing more
support.
6) The effectiveness of the CACG system
used with varying levels of support as shown in any available evaluation data.
7) Congruence of CACG system components
(self-assessment variables, information topics, decision-making process, and
terminology for careers and career choice) with existing assessment,
information, and instructional resources available to clients. Congruence between CACG systems and local
resources reduces the need for interventions to explain differences in
terminology, concepts, etc.
8) Extent of CACG system integration into
existing career services, e.g. how well are recommendations for effective
system use integrated into publications, signage, and staff public
presentations.
Conclusion
Irrespective of the amount of
support, if any, provided to help individuals use a CACG system, regular
evaluations of service effectiveness are needed. TheseThis
data can be used to enhance current interventions or to provide a rationale to
select a different model of intervention.
In addition, ethical codes and the practice they reflect evolve in
relation to changes in the profession, technology, and society. Professionals need to keep informed of this
evolutionary process in order to make appropriate decisions about models of
intervention. Finally, advocacy for
quality service delivery needs to be balanced with the responsible use of
limited funding resources for services.
Avoiding over-serving or under-serving clients helps to ensure that the greatest
number of clients have their needs appropriatelyrealistically
addressed. Access is valuable only when
something worthwhile is accessed!
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